Glossary

Any circumstance or event that causes pain, fear, or emotional discomfort.

Training the last behavior in a chain first, then training the next-to-last behavior, then the behavior before that, and so on. Back-chaining takes advantage of the reinforcing value of previously trained and well-reinforced behaviors.

A euphemism used to describe a training approach that mixes traditional (usually punishment-based) training techniques with positive reinforcement-based training methods.

Any observable action an animal does.

A series of behaviors linked together in a continuous sequence by cues, and maintained by a reinforcer at the end of the chain. Each cue serves as the marker and the reinforcer for the previous behavior, and the cue for the next behavior. Karen Pryor Clicker Training has differentiated technical chains, as defined by the applied behavior analysis community, from common chains, as used by many training practitioners.

An event marker that identifies the desired response and “bridges” the time between the response and the delivery of the primary reinforcer. The clicker is a bridging stimulus. This term developed in the marine mammal training community and is only occasionally used by dog trainers.

Subtle body signals used by dogs to indicate stress and to avoid or diffuse confrontation and aggression.

The process of marking and reinforcing a behavior the learner does naturally, and that you would like to see repeated.

The process of combining multiple behaviors into a continuous sequence linked together by cues, and maintained by a reinforcer at the end of the chain. Each cue serves as the marker and the reinforcer for the previous behavior, and the cue for the next behavior. Karen Pryor Clicker Training has differentiated technical chains, as defined by the applied behavior analysis community, from common chains, as used by many training practitioners.

A type of learning in which a neutral (conditioned) stimulus is paired with an unconditioned stimulus that elicits a reflexive response. Also referred to as respondent conditioning.

Generally, a clicker is an event marker used in positive reinforcement training. Most often, when a clicker is referenced, people are referencing the specific device that makes the noise. Animal trainers make use of the clicker as an event marker to mark a desired response. The sound of the clicker is an excellent marker because it is unique, quick, and consistent. Be sure and choose quality clickers. You can find several examples of quality clickers in our store.

Clicker training is a system of teaching that uses positive reinforcement in combination with an event marker.

A clicker training conference hosted by Karen Pryor Clicker Training. Features lectures, hands-on labs, performances, and networking events. For more information, visit the conference website.

The traditional style of dog training, where the dog is modeled or otherwise compelled to perform the behavior and physically corrected for noncompliance.

A learned stimulus that signifies that an aversive is coming. Used to deter or interrupt behavior; if the behavior halts or changes, the aversive may be avoided. For example, a trainer that says “ack” to interrupt a behavior, or the warning beep of a shock collar when a dog gets too close to the boundary of an electric fence.

A learned stimulus that signifies that something pleasant or desired is coming. The learned stimulus is paired with a primary reinforcer until the learned stimulus takes on the reinforcing properties of the primary reinforcer. A clicker, after being repeatedly associated with a food treat or other reinforcer, becomes a conditioned reinforcer.

Any stimulus that has preceded a particular behavior or event sufficiently often to provoke awareness or response. Clicks and cues are both examples of conditioned stimuli.

The result of an action. Consequences frequently, but not always, affect future behavior, making the behavior more or less likely to occur.

The simplest schedule of reinforcement. Every desired response is reinforced.

A euphemism for the application of a physical aversive. The aversive is intended to communicate that the dog did something wrong. In some cases, the trainer then guides the dog through the desired behavior. The application of an aversive followed by desired behavior is considered instructive, thus the euphemism ”correction.”

Pairing one stimulus that evokes one response with another that evokes an opposite response, so that the first stimulus comes to evoke the second response. For example, a dog is afraid of men wearing hats. When a man wearing a hat approaches, the dog is repeatedly fed his favorite food. The goal is to replace the animal’s apprehension with the pleasure elicited by the food. Counter-conditioning must be done gradually, however; if the process is rushed, or the timing is off,  the favorite food may take on the fear association instead.

The specific, trainer-defined characteristics of a desired response in a training session. The trainer clicks at the instant the animal achieves each criterion. Criteria can include not only the physical behavior but elements like latency, duration, and distance.

A dog that has previously been trained by a non-clicker method and is now being clicker trained. A cross-over dog is usually a dog that was previously trained using aversive tools but is now trained with positive reinforcement.

A trainer who previously used non-clicker methods to train animals and is now clicker training. A cross-over trainer is usually a trainer who previously trained using aversive tools but is now training with positive reinforcement.

A stimulus that elicits a behavior. Cues may be verbal, physical (i.e., a hand signal), or environmental (i.e., a curb may become a cue to sit if the dog is always cued to sit before crossing a road).

The process of increasing an animal’s tolerance to a particular stimulus by gradually increasing the presence of the stimulus.

The process of reinforcing a specific response in the presence of one stimuli (such as saying the word “sit”) and extinguishing the response to other stimuli (all other words spoken by the trainer). Differential reinforcement is not a schedule of reinforcement but describes the normal process of shaping behavior.

Anything in the environment that your dog wants. Trainers can use access to these things as powerful reinforcers for desired behavior. For example, say your dog wants to greet an approaching dog. You can ask for a behavior and then let your dog’s compliance (or non-compliance) determine whether he gets to meet and greet.

A signal used to mark desired behavior at the instant it occurs. The clicker is an event marker.

A procedure in which a reinforcer is no longer delivered for a previously reinforced behavior. For example, a treat lies on the other side of a fence. A dog has learned to reach his paw under the fence to get the treat. But if the dog cannot reach the treat, because reaching for the treat doesn’t work—because it isn’t reinforced through success—the dog will eventually quit reaching for the treat. It can be said that reaching for the treat has been extinguished.

A characteristic of extinction. If a previously reinforced behavior is not reinforced, the animal will increase the intensity or frequency of the behavior in an attempt to earn the reinforcement again. If the behavior is not reinforced it will eventually diminish but often not until after an extinction burst.

A schedule of reinforcement in which the trainer reinforces a desired behavior after a specific period of time—for example, every minute.

A schedule of reinforcement in which the trainer reinforces a desired behavior after a specific number of responses. For example, reinforcing a dog after every two barks offered or only reinforcing a spin after every third spin.

A common, but inaccurate, reference to the commonly seen chart illustrating the concepts of reinforcement and punishment. This description is misleading in several ways. It neglects to mention extinction, implies that all the principles of operant conditioning are of equal value in a training program, and leaves people with the impression that consequences are all that matter in operant conditioning when there are many other elements to consider.

A decrease in response to a particular stimulus as a result of repeated exposure to the same stimulus. Often considered a passive form of desensitization because no deliberate reinforcement is used in the process.

This is a guideline designed to assist trainers in choosing the appropriate behavior change procedure to use in a given training situation. It was introduced by Dr. Susan Friedman in an article titled Effectiveness is Not Enough. It has mistakenly been thought of as an iteration of the LIMA model, but it was created independently and based on a model used in working with children with special needs focusing on ethical decision-making.

The trainer reinforces according to a time schedule. In a fixed interval, the trainer reinforces the desired response after a specific period of time—for example, every minute. In a variable interval, the trainer reinforces after varying periods of time within a certain timeframe.

An unexpected large or high-value reinforcer given contingently based on a break-through performance that meets criteria for the first time or exceeds criteria if that is the desired response. This is a controversial tool as there are very few references to this concept in the applied animal behavior scientific literature, as the concept is borrowed from the tool’s use with humans in a casino. Practical trainers often disagree about how to use a jackpot effectively.

This is a training strategy that is not referenced in scientific literature but is a practical development used by trainers in a huge variety of ways. The most common use is as a signal that indicates to the learner to keep doing the behavior they are currently offering, but the animal is not finished yet. Sometimes used for long-duration behaviors, such as a medical behavior or a long-duration search to reinforce the animal for doing well but to encourage them to keep going until the behavior is complete.

The time between the cue and the response. Ideally, that time is zero—or as close to immediate as possible.

A method of guiding a dog through a behavior. For example, a food lure can be used to guide a dog from a sit into a down. This is a common method of getting more complex behaviors. Lures are usually food, but they may also be toys that the animal desires. Trainers must take care to fade the lure early to avoid them becoming dependent on the lure.

A signal used to indicate desired behavior at the instant it occurs. The clicker is a marker.

Also referred to as molding. A technique used in traditional training to get behavior. At the outset, the dog is physically guided, or otherwise compelled, into doing the behavior. Pushing a dog’s rear into a sit is modeling. Clicker trainers don’t use modeling very often because we want our dogs to be active participants in the training process, using their own brains to figure out what will earn them clicks.

Taking away something the animal will work for to suppress (lessen the frequency of) a behavior. For example, a dog jumps on you to get attention. By turning your back or leaving the room, you apply P- by removing the attention he wants. A negative punisher is often referred to as a time-out.

Removing something the animal will work to avoid to strengthen (increase the frequency of) a behavior. Heeling is traditionally taught through R-. The dog receives a correction when he walks anywhere except in heel position. Walking in heel position increases, because that is the only “safe” place—because the threat of correction is removed by walking there. The key to R- is that an aversive must first be applied or threatened in order for it to be removed.

Intended to be a signal to say, “No, that isn’t what I want.” From the operant conditioning perspective, it’s referred to as a conditioned punisher. No reward markers are used in various ways by different trainers, although not used in most positive reinforcement applications. 

The process of learning in which an animal’s behavior is altered by manipulating the consequences that immediately follow the response. Clicker training is a subset of operant conditioning, that focuses primarily on the use of positive reinforcement.

Criteria that are found in the final behavior. Permanent criteria should be trained to a higher level of reliability than temporary criteria.

A term used to refer to something that is no longer reinforcing for the dog.  Often used in the term “poisoned cue” which refers to a cue that has become aversive due to the behavior having been trained with punishment.

Adding something the animal will work to avoid to suppress (lessen the frequency of) a behavior. For example, jerking on the leash to stop a dog from jumping on someone is P+ used to suppress the behavior of jumping. Other common examples of P+ include yelling, nose taps, spanking, electric shock, and assorted “booby traps.”

Adding something the animal will work for to strengthen (increase the frequency of) a behavior. For example, giving the dog a treat for sitting in order to increase the probability that the dog will sit again.

A theory, named after behaviorist David Premack, stating that a high-probability behavior (a well-reinforced behavior such as going outside to play) can reinforce a lower-probability behavior (a less reliable behavior such as a newly trained sit).

A reinforcer that the animal is born needing. Food, water, sex, shelter, and social interactions are examples of primary reinforcers.

Teaching your dog to perform a behavior in the presence of distractions.

In operant conditioning, a consequence to a behavior in which something is added to or removed from the situation to make the behavior less likely to occur in the future.

The number of reinforcers given for desired responses in a specific period of time. A high rate of reinforcement is critical to training success.

A schedule of reinforcement in which the trainer reinforces desired behavior based on the number of responses. In a fixed ratio, the trainer reinforces the first “correct” response after a specific number of correct responses. In a variable ratio reinforcement schedule, the trainer reinforces the first correct response after varying numbers of correct responses.

In operant conditioning, a consequence to a behavior in which something is added to or removed from the situation to make the behavior more likely to occur in the future.

Any stimulus that makes a behavior more likely to occur in the future.

Not a technical concept, but a training strategy used by some practical trainers. A word that signals the dog that they no longer need to hold a specific position or, in some conceptual training projects, a cue that lets the dog know that a series of cues is complete and the dog may now carry out the instructions.  Because this is not a technical term, there are many other uses of the word in various training circles.

A type of learning in which a neutral (conditioned) stimulus is paired with an unconditioned stimulus that elicits a reflexive response. Also referred to as classical conditioning.

A conditioned reinforcer. A reinforcer the animal has learned through its association with primary reinforcement. Secondary reinforcers may be as, or even more, powerful than a primary reinforcer. The clicker, or marker, is an example of a secondary reinforcer.

Building behavior by breaking it down into small components and reinforcing “approximations” of the goal behavior. Shaping is sometimes used as shorthand for “shaping without prompts” however shaping is a much broader concept.

A characteristic of extinction in which a behavior that was thought to be extinct unexpectedly reappears. If the trainer ensures that the behavior is not reinforced, it will disappear again quickly.

A change in the environment. If the stimulus has no effect on the animal, it is a neutral stimulus. A stimulus that stands out in the environment, that the animal notices more than other environmental stimuli, is a salient stimulus. A stimulus that causes a change of state in the animal, that causes him to perform a specific behavior, for example, is a discriminative stimulus.

A conditioned stimulus becomes a discriminative stimulus (or cue) when it is followed by a specific learned behavior or reaction. The response is said to be ‘under stimulus control’ when presentation of the particular stimulus fulfills these four conditions: the behavior is always offered when that cue is presented; the behavior is not offered in the absence of that cue; the behavior is not offered in response to some other cue; and no other behavior occurs in response to that cue.

Increasing or altering a behavior incrementally by repeatedly changing the environment to amplify or extend the behavior. For example, increasing the weight of a load or the height of a jump by small increments to amplify the effort to pull a load or jump an obstacle.

Something the animal is taught to touch with some part of his body.

A mobile target the animal is taught to follow. Target sticks are often used to guide or shape behavior.

The process of teaching your learner to touch some part of its body to a designated object.

Criteria that are stepping stones to a final behavior that won’t, in their current form, be present in the final behavior. Temporary criteria should be trained only to about 80 percent reliability before “making it harder.” If a temporary criterion is reinforced for too long, the animal may be reluctant to change its behavior.

A slang term indicating that the animal has to perform three behaviors in order to earn one click and one treat.

The timing of the clicker. Ideally, the click should occur at exactly the same instant the target criterion is achieved. Timing is a mechanical skill and requires practice. The trainer must be able to recognize the behaviors that precede the target behavior in order to click at the very moment the target behavior occurs.

Compulsion training. Traditional training is characterized by modeling or luring to get the behavior, and the use of negative reinforcement and positive punishment to proof it.

A pre-set period of time set aside for training. A training period may be composed of multiple training sessions.

Either a pre-set period of time or a pre-set number of repetitions. Criteria should remain constant during a single session. At the end of a training session, the trainer evaluates the animal’s progress and decides whether to make the next session harder or stay at the same criteria. Also, a period of time devoted solely to training. Either the duration of the session or number of repetitions can be decided in advance.

A slang term indicating that the animal has to perform two behaviors in order to earn one click and one treat.

A schedule of reinforcement in which the trainer reinforces desired behavior after varying periods of time within a certain timeframe.

A schedule of reinforcement in which the trainer reinforces desired behavior after varying numbers of “correct” responses.

Technically, either a variable interval or variable ratio. However, most trainers use VSR to mean a variable ratio.